Legislative Skills for Future Generalists

The American health system is changing remarkably. Market forces, as well as state and federal legislative proposals, have shaken the system's foundation and given birth to radically different mechanisms of health-care finance and delivery. At the core of this revolution is an immense drive toward cost-containment, coupled with a resurgent interest in primary care, health promotion and disease prevention. As future physicians, medical students must understand the foundations of health and the health-care system as functions of larger political and socio-economic forces. Maximal patient health must then stem from properly adapted political, social and economic factors, and not merely the scientific interplay of biochemical reactions.

• Why is it important for medical students to be involved in legislative issues?
• What legislative issues impact primary care?
• What is the best way for me to convey my opinions to congressional representatives?
• How can my voice be heard?

As the health-care system evolves, it is essential for medical students to become more knowledgeable about both the policies affecting the health-care system and the legislative process that creates those policies. Medical students, properly trained and effectively mobilized, can be a potent political force advocating for the public health. As physicians, and especially as primary care providers, you will be the quarterbacks of the health-care delivery system.1 The speed at which the health-care system is changing also provides both a great opportunity and substantial responsibility to plot its course.

This GPIT Project-in-a-Box aims to empower medical students with the fundamentals of political activism. By carefully considering its contents, you can significantly affect the political process, advocate for sound health policies, and in turn become a better doctor by helping more than just your own patients. The challenge is yours--read on.

STUDENT ORGANIZERS GUIDE
This Project-in-a-Box contains a glossary of legislative language, suggestions for taking action, a description of the legislative process, letter writing tips and much more. Everything you need to take political action and become an advocate is contained in this box. Enjoy!

Activity Suggestions

• Organize a brown bag lunch or afternoon discussion group to talk about the information contained in this module. This could also be done after class or over dinner.
• Invite a speaker: Possibilities include a generalist physician who is active in legislative affairs, a local congressional representative or staff member, or someone who works for a local agency that's involved in health-care policy. You could invite multiple individuals and create a panel discussion. Any of these activities would enhance the material contained herein.
• Discuss the issues and create a plan for action: Conduct a voter-registration drive, an education project, or anything else you think will be beneficial to your school and community with respect to political activism. Ideas and knowledge are useless without action.

Legislative Language

Appropriations bill - Proposed legislation that approves government spending for a particular federal program for the upcoming fiscal year. Appropriations are considered only for programs that have been authorized.

Authorizing legislation - Basic legislation to establish or continue a federal program or agency, either indefinitely or for an established period of time; generally a prerequisite for subsequent appropriations.

Ballot initiative - A ballot item by which legislation may be introduced or enacted by a direct vote of the people.

Calendar - The agenda or schedule of business awaiting action by the full House or Senate.

Cloture - Process to end a filibuster other than by unanimous consent in the Senate.

Committee report - Recommendations of a committee on a particular bill.

Conference committee - Members of the House and Senate assigned to resolve the differences between two versions of the same legislation passed by the House and Senate.

Continuing resolution - Provides continued budget authority for federal programs and agencies to continue operations until regular appropriations bills are signed into law.

Entitlement programs - Federal programs such as Medicaid or Medicare that guarantee certain benefits to individuals or entities who meet requirements set by law.

Filibuster - A stalling tactic used in the Senate to delay or prevent a vote. A filibuster can only be stopped by cloture or unanimous consent.

Hearings - Committee sessions at which witnesses testify to provide information relating to a bill.

Lobbying - Influencing the opinions of senators and representatives through meetings, letters and phone calls.

Mark up - Committees may modify, or "markup," a bill by amending, deleting or revising sections of the legislation.

Rescission - An appropriations bill item that cancels budget authority previously appropriated but unspent.

Rider - An amendment to a bill not germane to the content of the bill.

Testimony - Opinions provided to committees or subcommittees with regard to a particular bill.

Veto - Rejection of a congressional bill by the President. Congress can override a veto by a two-thirds majority in each chamber.

Taking Action: Things You Can Do

• Hold a voter-registration drive for your school. Most medical students spend at least four years in a community and should be registered there.
• Invite a congressional or state legislator to speak at your school.
• Set up a bulletin board at your school where you can post literature on current issues and encourage students to periodically post information such as newspaper articles.
• Educate your students (and faculty) for upcoming elections. Collect pamphlets on as many candidates and issues as possible, and set up an information table in the weeks before the election.
• Invite a congressional representative to visit health centers in your district. As an elected representative, he or she should be greatly interested in these centers. Use this time to educate your legislator about your health center and district's needs.
• Set up a phone (or e-mail) tree to notify interested students (and faculty) about issues that need to be addressed through letter writing or phone calls to legislators.
• Set up a state lobby day for students. Contact AMSA's Legislative Affairs Director for a guide to setting up a local lobby day (call 703.620.6600, ext. 211, or e-mail lad@amsa.org).

Nuts and Bolts of the Legislative Process
The federal government is organized into three branches: executive, judicial and congressional. The executive branch includes the president, vice president and various federal agencies (e.g., the FDA) that are charged with carrying out federal laws. The judicial branch includes the Supreme Court, which interprets the Constitution and other federal laws. The legislative branch includes Congress, which makes federal laws. The U.S. Congress is composed of two chambers, the House of Representatives (435 representatives distributed by population) and the Senate (two senators per state). Each chamber possesses some specific powers but must rely on the other chamber and approval from the President to pass a bill into law. Senators are elected for six-year terms and Representatives for two. Each session of Congress is two years long and is numbered consecutively. For example, the 1995-96 session was the 104th Congress.

The path of legislation begins with bills and resolutions. Bills are the most common form of legislation and can be introduced by either chamber. When introduced, each bill is given a number and prefixed with "H.R." in the House of Representatives and "S." in the Senate. The bill's number is usually based on the order in which it was introduced during each session. However, there are exceptions to this rule; for example, a bill that involves access to telephone emergency numbers could be called H.R. 911.

Joint resolutions are very similar to bills and can be used to propose amendments to the Constitution. Concurrent resolutions (approved by both chambers) and simple resolutions (approved by only one chamber) express opinions or positions, but they do not have the force of law, nor do they require approval by the executive branch.

A bill can be introduced in either side of Congress (although all funding bills must originate in the House), and is referred to an appropriate committee. Both the House and Senate have numerous committees and sub-committees with jurisdiction over particular programs. The vast majority of bills die in committee. Thus, committee consideration is crucial in determining the future of a bill. Considerable support must exist if the bill is to advance any further, including strong support from the sponsors, the committee members and the committee chair.

Public hearings on proposed legislation take place during this phase. It is therefore extremely helpful to know which committees have jurisdiction over issues of interest to you, and who is on those committees. When public hearings are arranged, an organization may write to the clerk of the committee and request to have a representative speak at the hearings. This process is referred to as testifying and can prove extremely valuable in promoting or discouraging legislation.

If a bill is approved in committee it goes to the floor of that chamber for debate and a vote. If passed, it then goes through the entire process in the opposite chamber. Once the two processes are complete and the bill has been successfully passed out of both chambers, it can proceed in one of two directions. If the House and Senate versions are different, the bill will go to conference, where members of each chamber will attempt to resolve the differences. If the bill passes both chambers in identical form, it then goes directly to the executive branch for presidential approval. With the president's signature, the bill becomes law. With a presidential veto, the bill is sent back to Congress, where a subsequent two-thirds majority in each chamber is required to override the veto.

Many political activists start their efforts by attempting to introduce bills into the legislative process. By writing proposed legislation and securing the sponsorship of a member of Congress, they have the opportunity to parlay legislative concerns into public policy. After a bill's introduction, numerous opportunities to influence the course of the legislation exist through testimony and lobbying.

Lobbying involves influencing the opinions of congresspersons through personal meetings with them or their staff, letter writing or phone calls. It can consist of simply voicing an opinion about a bill or particular parts of the bill, or it can mean advising the member on how to improve the bill through alterations. Lobbying can be effective at any stage of the legislative process from a bill's introduction to committee consideration to floor debate to vote. The President may even be lobbied to sign or veto a bill.

How Do I Get Bill Information?
You can get information on bills through various organizations, news media or the Internet. For copies of bills, call the Congressional Document Room at (202) 225-3456. For the status of bills in committee, call the committees or subcommittees themselves at the numbers listed on the previous page.

Political activists have up to eight opportunities to support or oppose legislation

• Introduction of a bill in the House of Representatives
• Introduction of a bill in the Senate
• Committee consideration in the House
• Committee consideration in the Senate
• General consideration in the House
• General consideration in the Senate
• Conference committee between the two chambers
• Presidential approval or veto

Six Most Important Committees Affecting Health Care

House: The House Ways and Means Committee (202-225-3625) and its Health Subcommittee (202-225-1025) oversee Medicare in the House and were responsible for launching most of the health financing legislation that was passed in the 1960s and early 1970s.

The House Commerce Committee (202-225-2927) and its Health and Environment Subcommittee (202-225-2927) have jurisdiction over the Public Health Service (PHS) and Medicaid programs, and share jurisdiction with the House Ways and Means Committee over Medicare. Funding of family medicine residencies may be debated here.

The House Appropriations Committee (202-225-2771) and its Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education (202-225-3508) appropriate funds for individual health programs, such as the Ryan White AIDS programs and rural health research.

Senate: The Senate Finance Committee (202-224-4515) has jurisdiction over Medicare and Medicaid in the Senate.

The Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee (202-224-5375) has jurisdiction over Public Health Service programs. Funding of primary care research would be considered here.

The Senate Appropriations Committee (202-224-3471) and its Subcommittee on Labor, Health, and Human Services and Education (202-224-7230) appropriate funds for individual health programs, e.g., rural outreach grants.

Engaging Your Elected Officials: Tools of the Trade
Many legislators lack a background in health care and rely on health-care leaders among their constituents to provide them with information and direction. Legislators are most responsive to voters in their own districts or states. Letters, phone calls and personal visits can all be valuable means of communicating with and influencing your legislators. Be assured that letters receive more than just a passing glance

Each is read, documented and given a response. Phone calls, while considered less effective, are similarly recorded and receive a response. Personal visits from constituents to politicians and their staff are very important and can be an excellent opportunity to make your concerns heard. Whichever method you choose, remember that legislators are elected to represent and work for you, their constituent. To do their job effectively, they need to hear from you as frequently as is appropriate and necessary.

Letter Writing
The optimal time to write to a legislator is while the bill you are interested in is in committee. Your letter will be especially influential if one of the committee members represents your district. If the bill has already been voted on, your letter will have very little impact.

Identify yourself as a medical student. This lends credibility, especially with legislation pertaining to health care. It is important to state whether or not you are a constituent. If you are representing a particular organization, be sure to say so.

Immediately identify the issue or legislation you are writing about. Identify the bill by name and number (e.g., S.1028) if possible. State your support for, or opposition to, the bill and the reasons for your position. Clearly outline the facts, and precisely state what you want the legislator to do.

Try to personalize the issue by stating how it will affect you or the organization you are representing. Offer to follow-up with additional information by letter, telephone or in person. Legislators rely on accurate and timely information from constituents to assist them in the consideration of legislation.

DOs and DON'Ts of Letter Writing:

• DO be respectful.
• DO address the legislator properly:

The Honorable ______(use correct spelling)

United States Senate

(office building address, may be obtained by calling 202-224-3121)

Washington, DC 20510

(begin letter with: Dear Senator Smith,)

The Honorable ______( use correct spelling)

U.S. House of Representatives

(office building address, may be obtained by calling 202-224-3121)

Washington, DC 20515

(begin letter with: Dear Representative Smith,)

• DO include any pertinent bill number or the popular name of the pending legislation.
• DO be specific and try to keep your letter to one page.
• DO ask the legislator for his or her support, as well as his or her position on the issue.
• DO send a personal letter, either typed or neatly hand-written and always personally signed.
• DO be sure to write a follow-up letter to thank your legislator for consideration of your position.
• DO be timely; it is important to contact your representative while action can still be taken.
• DON'T promise items, such as specific information, which you cannot deliver.
• DON'T send form letters or petitions.
• DON'T mix requests. Focus on one topic and one request.
  

Telephone Calls
Phone calls should be limited to situations in which a letter would not reach the legislator in a timely manner. Be respectful and polite, and have available the specific bill number and its status. Be prepared to speak with a staff person and give a brief and concise overview of your position. In some instances, the staff person may suggest a time for you to call back and speak with the legislator personally. Be sure to leave your name and number. Remember, it is often just as effective to speak with a staff member as the legislator. Regardless of with whom you speak, always follow the telephone call with a letter, in which you briefly restate your position and thank the legislator or staff person for his or her time.

Personal Visits
A personal visit, when performed properly, is perhaps the most influential form of lobbying that exists. The challenge is to know your issue well, be organized, and communicate clearly. You should try to bring written materials (journal articles, examples of community programs, etc.) that contain the information you wish to discuss. These can be left with the legislator or appropriate staff person.

You should make an appointment with the appointments secretary at least two weeks prior to your scheduled visit. If you desire a specific staff person to be present (e.g., the legislative assistant for health policy), you should communicate that wish at the time of scheduling. Explain your purpose and identify yourself as a medical student. Make sure to identify yourself as a constituent, if you are. Keep in mind that legislators are very busy, so be flexible if asked to reschedule.

Be on time for your appointment. Once the meeting begins, state your issue and position as quickly as possible. If there are several members of your group, you should appoint a spokesperson to lead the discussion. Try to avoid medical jargon and confusing statistics. Give information; misrepresenting the facts will only cause the legislator to mistrust you. If you do not know the answer to a question, don't make something up --simply tell the legislator you will get back to him or her or the staff person. This will give you the opportunity to set up another meeting in the future.

Specifically state what it is that you would like the legislator to do for you. Explain the relevance of this request to the interests of the legislator's constituency. Obtain the name of the staff person with whom you should follow- up, and be sure to leave your name, address and telephone number. Always send a follow-up letter to the legislator to thank him or her for the meeting and to reiterate your position. Any additional material that you have promised should also be included.

DOs and DON'Ts of Personal Visits:

• DO make appointments at least two weeks in advance. Be flexible if asked to reschedule.
• DO be polite and respectful.
• DO be willing to meet with a staff member if the legislator is not available.
• DO be prepared. Use facts to support your position, and illustrate with personal experiences.
• DO ask your legislator to do something specific; for example, to vote for or against particular legislation.
• DON'T be rude or argumentative.
• DON'T give answers you are unsure of.
• DON'T sacrifice future gains for short-term solutions.

E-mail
Some legislators have e-mail accounts established to communicate with constituents. Call and ask if this is an available option with your legislator. If you have access to the World Wide Web, you may be able to e-mail your legislator by using The Electronic Activist (http://www.berkshire.net/~ifas/activist/).

Tips on Staying Informed
Bills and reports are accessible to the public, and legislators are usually cooperative in providing copies; you can also call (202) 225-3456 to obtain this information. When legislators are supportive of a cause, they often will offer advice on how to rally congressional support.

Ask to be added to the e-mail list of AMSA's Legislative Affairs Director (lad@amsa.org). As a member of this list, you'll receive Straight From the Hill, a weekly electronic newsletter on important legislative and political issues. Make sure you are receiving AMSA's Health Policy Forum, a new publication of the Legislative Affairs Committee. Post a copy of this and any other pertinent information on a designated bulletin board at school for students and faculty to read.

Utilize Online and Internet Sources
There are numerous sites on the World Wide Web that provide legislative information. Below is a sample of excellent sites:

Intergovernmental Health Policy Project (IHPP)

http://www.gwu.edu/~ihpp

 

CNN

http://allpolitics.com

 

The White House

http://www.whitehouse.gov

 

Department of Health and Human Services

http://www.os.dhhs.gov

Various excellent political and election web pages:

Thomas: legislative language on the Internet

http://thomas.loc.gov/

 

Vote Smart Web: one-stop shopping center for political information

http://www.vote-smart.org/

 

Politics Now: complete coverage of politics, election, government, etc.

http://www.politicsnow.com

 

The Democratic Party On-Line

http://www.democrats.org

 

Republican Main Street

http://www.rnc.org/

Additional Resources

• Almanac of American Politics (most public libraries)
• Congressional Staff Directory (most public libraries)
• League of Women Voters (locate phone number in local directory)
• Congressional Quarterly (a weekly publication, available at most libraries)
• AMA Congressional Directory (pocket-sized directory of members of congress and names of health staffers. For a copy, write to Kate Cox, AMA, 1101 Vermont Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20005)
• American Public Health Association [maintains voting records of members of Congress on public health issues, updated semi-annually. Call (202)789.5600 for a copy]

References

1. Mullan F., Politzer, R.M. Building primary care: the beat goes on. Primary Care Quarterly, 1995; (3) 4:2.
2. Wolpe, B. Lobbying congress: how the system works. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc, 1990.
3. Graduate medical education reform. Position statement from the Organizations of Academic Family Medicine. Washington, DC: 1995.
4. Midtling, J. Family practice training programs and research. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Labor/HHS, Education and Related Agencies, House Committee on Appropriations. Organizations of Academic Family Medicine, January 31 1995.
5. Senate report 102-426 accompanying PL 102-410. Washington, DC: United States Senate, 1992.
6. Tschida, M. Corps or less. The New Physician 1995; (44) 8: 12-16.

Case Studies

Political Activism and Primary Care: Policy Issues
Now that we've covered the basics of legislative action and activism in general, what can you do to affect primary care in particular? Below are some examples of how public policy affects primary care. As you read through these issues, try to think of political strategies that would improve primary care health policy.

Case 1
The Federal government historically has supported graduate medical education (GME) through several mechanisms, including Medicare and the Public Health Service Act. Support for GME through titles VII and VIII of the Public Health Service Act are especially important for primary care residencies. Despite the need for more generalist physicians, the federal government's current proposals threaten to decrease GME funding. Primary care residency programs will be hit especially hard if the title VII and VIII support is lost.3 Authorization and appropriation of funding for GME is a complicated process that occurs in the House and Senate Appropriations Committees, the House Commerce and Ways and Means Committees, and the Senate Labor and Human Resources and Finance Committees.

Questions

• Are your legislators on any of these Committees?
• How could you advocate for or against GME funding based on the information contained in this Project-in-a-Box?

Case 2
In testimony before the Subcommittee on Labor/HHS, Education and Related Agencies (House Committee on Appropriations), the Organizations of Academic Family Medicine made the following statement: "Eighty percent of family practice residency programs are located in community hospitals, half of which have no other specialty residency. This is a key reason family medicine produces physicians who practice in all areas of the country, but also one of the reasons there is not a great deal of outside funding available to these programs. This is especially true because Medicare does not reimburse hospitals for graduate medical education (GME) training that occurs in the ambulatory setting--the hallmark of family medicine residency training." 4 Despite the public demand to move residency education away from the hospital and toward outpatient and community-based care, federal public policy makes it punitive to train residents anywhere other than within the hospital setting.

Questions

• What organizations in your communities would have an interest in this issue (e.g., community health centers, public health agencies, your academic health center)?
• How could medical students form action-oriented partnerships with these groups to advocate for this change in public policy?
• What specific actions would such a coalition of groups take?

Case 3
In the past, very little federal funding has been available to support primary care research. The agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) is the only entity of the federal government that provides this funding. The 1992 Senate report reauthorizing AHCPR states that the Agency should strengthen its commitment to family practice and primary care research.5 "The committee believes that inadequate attention has been given to conditions that affect the vast majority of Americans--that is, the undifferentiated problems individuals present to their generalist physicians. A focus on family practice/primary care research is essential if we are to redirect the U.S. health-care system that is currently skewed toward high-technology medicine for catastrophic diseases."

Questions

• What House and Senate committees would make decisions on funding of AHCPR?
• Who are the members of those committees, and how could you contact them in support of primary care research?

Case 4
The National Health Service Corps (NHSC) was designed to place health-care providers in underserved areas. Today more than 1,900 NHSC primary care providers are at work in both rural and urban areas across the country, serving 3.8 million people.6 It is estimated that an additional 12,000 primary care providers are needed in shortage areas. Republicans have been proposing significant cuts to the NHSC. Despite this information, some recent proposals called for a 50% reduction of NHSC funding.

Questions

• Does your state have NHSC providers caring for the underserved?
• Does your state have special populations who could benefit from NHSC-supported providers?
• How could this information be used to educate policymakers about NHSC funding?

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